Types of solids

Solids can be broadly classified into following two types,
(i) Crystalline solids
(ii) Amorphous solids

(i) Crystalline solids
• They have long range order
• definite heat of fusion
• anisotropic
• sudden change in volume when it melts
• definite melting point
• rigid and in compressible
• possess interfacial angles,
(ii) Amorphous solids
• They have short range order
• Not have definite melting point
• Not be compressed to any appreciable extent
• They are isotropic
• no sudden change in volume on melting
• Not possess interfacial angles.

Classification
of Crystalline solids
1: Molecular Solids
(a: Non Polar molecules solids ,b: Polar molecular solids ,c:Hydrogen Bonded molecular solids)
2: Ionic Solids
3: Metalic Solids
4: Covalent or Network solids

Point Defect 3 type
1: stoichiometric Defects: It is a type of point defects which does not disturb the stoichiometry of solid. This is also known as Intrinsic or Thermodynamic Defects.
2: Impurities Defects: Defects in ionic compounds because of replacement of ions by the ions of other compound is called impurities defects.
3: Non-stoichiometric Defects: There are large numbers of inorganic solids found which contain the constituent particles in non-stoichiometric ratio because of defects in their crystal structure.

Solute, solvent and solution
The component that is present in the largest quantity is solvent. One more components Present in the solution .other than solvent are called solutes.

Molarity and Molality
Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

Raoult’s law
Raoult’s law relates the relative concentrations of the components in solution with their relative vapor pressures above the solution. Raoult’s law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is equal to the sum of the vapor pressures of each volatile component if it were pure multiplied by the mole fraction of that component in the solution.

osmotic pressure
The hydrostatic pressure exerted by a solution across a semipermeable membrane from a pure solvent; the pressure needed to counteract osmosis.

Electrochemical cell
An electrochemical cell is a device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions or facilitating chemical reactions through the introduction of electrical energy. An electrochemical cell is composed to two compartments or half-cells, each composed of an electrode dipped in a solution of electrolyte

Strong, Weak,
and Non Electrolytes
Strong Electrolytes
Strong electrolytes completely ionize in water. This means 100% of the dissolved chemical breaks into cations and anions (Sodium Hydroxide)
Weak Electrolytes
Weak electrolytes partially ionize in water. Pretty much any dissociation into ions between 0% and 100% makes a chemical a weak electrolyte (Ammonia)
Nonelectrolytes
If a substance doesn’t ionize in water at all, it’s a nonelectrolyte (Most carbon compounds)
Commercial Cell
a)primary cells (Dry cell,Mercury cell)
b) Secondary cells (Lead Storage battery,Nickel-Cadmium Cell) c)Fuel Cell
Fuel Cell
A fuel cell produces electricity through a chemical reaction, but without combustion. It converts hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process also creates electricity.
Factors affecting
rates of reactions
1: Concentration of reactants
2: Temperature
3: Pressure
4: Presence of catalyst
5: Nature of reactants and products

Molecularity of the Reaction
The number of molecules taking part in the reaction as represented by the simple chemical equation is called molecularity of the reaction or It is number of species which undergo collision to result into a chemical reaction.

Adsorption,adsorbent,adsorbate
Adsorption, the binding of molecules or particles to a surface, must be distinguished from absorption, the filling of pores in a solid. adsorbent is a substance that is usually porous in nature with high surface area that can adsorb substances onto its surface with the help of intermolecular forces while the adsorbate is a substance that is adsorb on a surface of another substance. The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina

Emulsion
An emulsion is a colloid of two or more immiscible liquids where one liquid contains a dispersion of the other liquids.

Tyndall Effect
The Tyndall Effect is the effect of light scattering in colloidal dispersion, while showing no light in a true solution. This effect is used to determine whether a mixture is a true solution or a colloid.

Brownian movement
Brownian movement or motion, zigzag, irregular motion exhibited by minute particles of matter when suspended in a fluid. The effect has been observed in all types of colloidal suspensions- solid-in-liquid, liquid-in-liquid, gas-in-liquid, solid-in-gas, and liquid-in-gas.

Calcination
Calcination is the process in which the ore is heated below its melting point, either in the absence or in a limited supply of air, in an aim to drive off volatile expunges, moisture, water of hydrates and organic matter from the ore.

Hydraulic Washing
The ore particles are poured over a hydraulic classifier which is a vibrating sloped table with grooves and a jet of water is allowed to flow over it. The denser ore settle in the grooves while the lighter gangue particles are washed away. This method is used for concentration of heavy oxide ores of lead, tin, iron etc.

Nitrogen family
The nitrogen family includes the following compounds: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi).All Group 15 elements have the electron configuration ns2np3 in their outer shell, where n is equal to the principal quantum number.
Nitrogen
When nitrogen is heated, it combines directly with magnesium, lithium, or calcium.When mixed with oxygen and subjected to electric sparks, it forms nitric oxide (NO) and then the dioxide (NO2). When heated under pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a suitable catalyst , ammonia forms (Haber process).

Phosphorus
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. Phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus. White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat. Red phosphorus exists as an amorphous network. Upon further heating, the amorphous red phosphorus crystallizes.

d-block and f-block elements
The d-block elements are found in the middle of the period table. The d-block elements are called transition metals and have valence electrons in d orbital’s.
The f-block elements, found in the two rows at the bottom of the periodic table, are called inner transition metals and have valence electrons in the f-orbital’s.

The general properties
of the transition elements
• They are usually high melting point metals.
• They usually form coloured compounds.
• They are often paramagnetic.
• They have several oxidation states.
Coordination compound
A coordination compound contains a central metal atom or ion surrounded by a number of oppositely charged ions or neutral molecules. There is a coordinate bond between the metal atom and these ions or molecules.Two or more chemical compounds with identical chemical formula but different structures are called isomers and this phenomena is known as isomerism. Coordination compounds show two main types of isomerism.

Ionization Isomerism
The isomers which form different ions in solution, although, they have same the composition, are called ionization isomers.

Coordination Isomerism
This type of isomerism is shown by compounds in which both cation and the anion are complexes.
The isomers differ as a result of different groups being coordinated about a particular coordination center.

Linkage Isomerism
This type of isomerism occurs with ambidentate ligands. These ligands are capable of coordinating in more than one way. The best known cases involve the monodentate ligands SCN- & NCS- and NO2- & ONO-

Hydrate / Solvate Isomerism
Compounds which have the same composition but differ in the number of water molecules present as ligands and as a free solvent molecule in the crystal lattice, are called solvate isomers.

Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Haloalkanes and Haloarenes are a type of hydrocarbons (compounds of hydrogen and carbon). In these hydrocarbons, one or more of the hydrogen atom(s) is replaced by a halogen.The difference between haloalkanes and haloarenes is that haloalkanes are derived from alkanes (open chain hydrocarbons) while haloarenes are derived from aromatic hydrocarbons.Haloalkanes used as solvent for many non-polar covalent compounds. Haloarenes used for medicinal uses.

Alchols phenols and Ethers
Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers

Alcohols and phenols are formed when a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon, aliphatic and aromatic respectively, is replaced by –OH group.
An alcohol contains one or more hydroxyl (OH) group(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s), of an aliphatic system (CH3OH) while a phenol contains –OH group(s) directly attached to carbon atom(s) of an aromatic system (C6H5OH).The substitution of a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon by an alkoxy or aryloxy group (R–O/Ar–O) yields another class of compounds known as ‘ethers

Aldehydes ketones
and Carboxylic acid

Aldehydes and ketones
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group.
Uses of Aldehydes and ketones.
• Aldehydes and ketones are solvent in industry
• Urea formalde glues and other polymeric products.
• Formaldehyde can be used to preserve dead animals.
Carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids is a homologous series in which the compounds contain a functional group called the carboxyl group (-COOH). Carboxylic acids are derivatives of hydrocarbons in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon have been replaced by a carboxyl group.

Amines

There are Two classes of amines. They are as below.
Aliphatic amines: These aliphatic amines are classified into Three types
a)Primary amines: Primary amines are formed when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia
b) Secondary amines: In a secondary amine, two of the hydrogen atoms in an ammonia molecule have been replaced by hydrocarbon groups.
c) Tertiary amines: In a tertiary amine, all of the hydrogen atoms in an ammonia molecule have been replaced by hydrocarbon groups.
Aromatic amines: Aromatic amines are also known as Analines.
They are three types of aromatic amines, the monocyclic, polycycluc and heterocyclic amines.

Biomolecules

Classification of Carbohydrate
There are a variety of interrelated classification schemes. The most useful classification scheme divides the carbohydrates into groups according to the number of individual simple sugar units.
• Monosaccharides are often called simple sugars, these are compound which possess a free aldehyde or ketone group.
• Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that yield 2 to 10 molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• Polysaccharides are compound sugars and yield more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.

Polymers
polymer
The polymers are defined as macromolecules composed of one or more chemical units (monomers) that are repeated throughout a chain.

Classification of polymer

• Natural polymer : The polymers which obtainby nature or natural sources like plants and animals.
Ex: Cellulose,Rubber
• Synthetic polymers: The polymers which found by laboratories or industries are called synthetic polymers.
Ex: Polythene, Fiber
• Semi Synthetic polymers: These types of polymers formed by chemical reaction with neutral polymers.
Ex: rayon.
Based on the Structure of Polymers
• Linear polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are joined with each other and formed long and straight chain.
These polymers have high melting points and density.
Ex: p.v.c
• Branched chain polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are joined with each other and formed long and straight chain having some branches.
These polymers have low melting points and density.
Ex: Low density polythene
• Cross linked polymers:
In this type of polymers, monomers are formed from bi-functional and tri-functional monomers and contain strong covalent bonds between various linear polymer chains.
Ex: Bakelite

Chemistry in Everyday Life

Classification of Drugs
• Based on the pharmacological effect
• On the basis of Chemical Structure
• On the basis of Drug action
• On the basis of molecular targets

Therapeutic Classification of Drugs
Therapeutic classes are a way of classifying medical drugs according to their functions. Each therapeutic class is a group of similar medications classified together because they are intended to treat the same medical conditions. These classifications are used by doctors and pharmacists when selecting appropriate treatments for patients.

Artificial sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners are substances that are used as substitutes for natural sugar (sucrose), they contain low calories.

Saccharin
Sucrose is about 300 times less sweet than saccharin, but it has a bitter aftertaste. It cannot be used in products where baking of food is necessary as it becomes unstable when it is heated. But it can be used to sweeten candies, drinks and toothpaste.

Aspartame
approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar. It is a dipeptide methyl ester and its name is aspartyl phenylalanine-1-methyl ester. It is commonly used as table top sweetener, and is also used in a variety of foods.

Alitame
Alitame is an artificial sweetener that is 2,000 times as sweet as sugar.